An Introduction To Welding

An Introduction To Welding Welding can be defined as a permanent joining process that produces coalescence of materials by heating them to the welding temperature, with or without the application of pressure or by the application of pressure alone, and with or without the use of filler metal [8]. Ibrahim [10] defined welding as a process of permanent joining two materials usually metals through localised coalescence resulting from suitable combination of temperature, pressure and metallurgical conditions. Most welding processes use heat to join parts together and the equipment used to generate the required varies, depending on the welding process. Welding is used extensively for the manufacture and repair of farm equipment, construction of boilers, mining and refinery equipment, furnaces and railway cars. In addition, construction of bridges and ships also commonly requires welding. The application of welding process depends on the requirements of the weld, accessibility of the weld area, economic considerations and available welding equipment [9]. The strength and the integrity of a weld depend on the material properties of the metal being welded, as well as on a great many other factors. These factors include the shape of the weld, temperature of the heat sources, the amount of heat produced by the source and even the type of power source used. Overview of Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) In recent years, pressure to increase productivity and reduce costs by the manufacturers has been the main driving force behind the adoption of flux cored wires. Productivity, quality and ease of use are the three main factors on which the increasing popularity of FCAW. FCAW is an arc welding process that uses an arc between a continuous filler metal electrode and the weld pool [8]. The flux is used as a protection for molten metal from the atmosphere contaminations during welding operation. It will improve strength through chemical reactions and produce excellent weld shape. FCAW is very similar to GMAW in principle of operation and equipment used. In FCAW, weld metal is transferred as in GMAW globular or spray transfer. However, FCAW can achieve greater weld metal deposition and deeper penetration than GMAW short circuiting transfer [9]. The effects of electrode extension, nozzle angle, welding directions, welding speed and other welding manipulations are similar as GMAW. The FCAW are welding process introduced in early 1950s with the development of an electrode that contained a core of flux material. However, an external shielding gas was required even with the flux cored electrode. After that, the flux cored electrode that did not require an external shielding gas was developed in 1959. Shielding gas is important in FCAW-G process for increased penetration and filler metal deposition [9]. FCAW can be applied automatically or semi-automatic. Most FCAW process is semi-automatic, which is the wire feeder continuously feeds the electrode wire and the welder must manually positions the torch into the weld. However, it can transform to fully automatically with a computer driven robot manipulating the torch along a preset path. FCAW is widely used for welding large sections and with materials of great thicknesses and lengths, especially in the flat position. FCAW actually comprises two welding processes. The two variations for applying FCAW are self-shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW-S) and gas-shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW-G). The difference in the two is due to different fluxing agents in the consumables, which provide different benefits to the user. FCAW-S is a variation of FCAW in which the shielding gas is provided solely by the flux material within the electrode. The heat of the welding arc causes the flux to melt, creating a gaseous shield around the arc and weld pool. FCAW-S is also called Innershield and it is a flux cored arc welding process developed by Lincoln Electric Manufacturing Company [9]. On the other hand, shielding in FCAW-G is obtained from both the CO2 gas flowing from the gas nozzle and from the flux core of the electrode. FCAW-G is widely performed in flat and horizontal position. However, FCAW-G also can be performed for vertical and overhead position by using small diameter electrodes. C:UserssahaDesktopfcaws.png Figure 2.1: Self-Shielded Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW-S). [11] C:UserssahaDesktopfcawS.png Figure 2.2: Gas-Shielded Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW-G). [11] FCAW requires more electrode extension than GMAW. It is because electrode extension will affect the vapour-forming ingredients to generate enough arc vapour for adequate shielding [11]. Inadequate arc vapour will cause porosity in the weld. Besides that, the deposition rates and current density in FCAW are also higher than GMAW. The increased current density occurs due flux cored electrodes are tubular rather than solid, and the flux core has less density and current-carrying capacity than metal [11]. FCAW has a wide range of applications in industry. FCAW combines the production efficiency of GMAW and the penetration and deposition rates of SMAW. FCAW also has the ability to weld metals as thin as that used in vehicle bodies and as thick as heavy structural members of high rise buildings. The most common application of FCAW is in structural fabrication. High deposition rates achieved in single pass make FCAW more popular in the railroad, shipbuilding and automotive industries. Advantages of FCAW FCAW has many advantages over the manual shielded metal arc welding. It is more flexible and acceptable in varies industry compared to other welding operation such as gas metal arc welding, submerged arc welding and oxyacetylene welding. These advantages of FCAW [9, 10] are as follows: High quality weld metal deposit Produces smooth and uniform beads with an excellent weld appearance Produce less distortion than SMAW Welds a variety of steels over a wide thickness range High operating factor High deposition rate with high current density Economical engineering joint design Limitations of FCAW The limitations of FCAW regarding its applicability [12] are as follows: Confined to ferrous metals which is primary steels Removal of post weld slag requires another production step Electrode wire is more expensive on a weight basis than solid electrode wires Equipment is more expensive and complex than required for SMAW Ventilation system need to be increased to handle added volume of smoke and fume Robotic Welding Technology Nowadays, most of welding processes could be done in automated applications. With these automated applications, the welding process then called as robotic welding. Robot welding is the use of mechanized programmable tools, which completely automate a welding process by both performing the weld and handling the part. Robot welding is a relatively new application of robotics, even though robots were first introduced into US industry during the 1960s. The use of robots in welding did not take off until the 1980s, when the automotive industry began using robots extensively for spot welding. Since then, both the number of robots used in industry and the number of their applications has grown greatly. Cary and Helzer suggest that, as of 2005, more than 120,000 robots are used in North American industry, about half of them pertaining to welding. Growth is primarily limited by high equipment costs, and the resulting restriction to high-production applications. Robot arc welding has begun growing quickly just recently, and already it commands about 20% of industrial robot applications.[3] Major components of robotic welding The main components of arc welding robots are the manipulator or the mechanical unit and the controller, which acts as the robots brain. The manipulator is what makes the robot move, and the design of these systems can be categorized into several common types, such as the SCARA robot and Cartesian coordinate robot, which use different coordinate systems to direct the arms of the machine. It consists of a vertical mast and a horizontal boom that carries the welding head. They are sometimes referred to as boom and mast or column and boom positioners. Manipulators are specified by two dimensions: The maximum height under the arc from the floor. Maximum reach of the arc from the mast. The length of travel can be unlimited thus the same welding manipulator can be used for different weldment by moving from one workstation to another. http://www.emeraldinsight.com/content_images/fig/0490350503015.png In selecting and specifying a welding manipulator, it is important to determine the weight to be carried on the end of the boom and how much deflection can be allowed. The welding torch should move smoothly at travel speed rates compatible with the welding process. The manipulator carriage must also move smoothly at the same speed. Manipulators can be used for straight-line, longitudinal and transverse welds and for circular welds when a rotating device is used. As the diagram below shows, axis 1 and 2 are effectively a shoulder, axis 3 and 4 elbow and forearm and axis 5 and 6 are the wrist of the robot. Advantages of robotic welding Improve consistency of quality welds Difference with manual welding process, robotic welding can produces a consistently high quality of finished product, since there is no risk of tiredness, distraction or other effects from manually performing tedious and repetitive task. Once programmed correctly, robots will give precisely the same welds every time on work pieces of the same dimensions and specifications. Greater cycle speed Beside of above repeat ably, robotic welding systems also produce greater cycle speed as robots move from one weld to the next very quickly, making the entire process much faster. Robotic welding systems are able to operate continuously, provided appropriate maintenance procedures are adhered to. Continuous production line interruptions can be minimized with proper robotic system design. Repeatability Robot welding system may perform more repeat ably than a manual welder because of the monotony of the task. Robots work well for repetitive tasks or similar pieces that involve welds in more than one axis or where access to the pieces is difficult. Increase production output rates With robot welding you can also get an increased output with robots left running overnight and during weekends with little supervision. Robots also produce effectively because they can work inexhaustibly and consistently. As a result, output levels increase and client order deadlines can be met more easily. Safer workplace Comply with safety rules and improve workplace health and safety, robots can take overrun pleasant, arduous or health threatening tasks, decreasing the likelihood of accidents caused by employee contact with potentially hazardous fumes machines or processes. Comfortably Employees no longer have to work in hot, dusty or hazardous environments, plus they can learn valuable programming skills and be freed up for other work. As the same time, this condition improves quality of work for employees and helps retain them and reduces turnover. Reduction of costs Labour costs with less manual labour, there will be fewer costs related to sickness, accidents and insurance. Operating costs Robots can reduce both direct costs and overheads, making a dramatic difference to competitiveness. Automating the torch motions decreases the error potential which means decreased scrap and rework. Waste material cost the amount of waste due to poor-quality or inconsistent finishing can be significantly reduced. Welding Position Welding must be done in the position in which the part will be used. In this project, the scope is to study and investigate the correlation between welding parameter and bead geometry in 2F position. 2F position indicates welding operation for fillet weld in horizontal position. According to the American Welding Society (AWS), horizontal fillet welding is the position in which welding is performed on the upper side of an approximately horizontal surface and against and approximately vertical surface [8]. C:UserssahaDesktop2f position.png Figure 2.3: Schematic diagram of horizontal welding 2F position. [8] The official AWS diagrams for welding positions are precise. They utilize the angle of the axis of the weld which is a line through the length of the weld perpendicular to the cross section at its center of gravity. Figure 2.4 shows the fillet weld and its limits of the various positions. It is necessary to consider the inclination of the axis of the weld as well as the rotation of the face of the fillet weld [8]. Welding current Welding current is the most influential variable in arc welding process which controls the electrode burn off rate, the depth of fusion and geometry of the weldments. Welding voltage This is the electrical potential difference between the tip of the welding wire and the surface of the molten weld pool. It determines the shape of the fusion zone and weld reinforcement. High welding voltage produces wider, flatter and less deeply penetrating welds than low welding voltages. Depth of penetration is maximum at optimum arc voltage. [15] Welding speed Speed of welding is defined as the rate of travel of the electrode along the seam or the rate of the travel of the work under the electrode along the seam. Increasing the speed of travel and maintaining constant arc voltage and current will reduce the width of bead and also increase penetration until an optimum speed is reached at which penetration will be maximum. [15] The correct weld speed will result in a well formed weld bead that shows good fusion, penetration and a gradual transition of weld metal into the corners of the joint. A weld speed that is too fast results in a thin stringy weld with poor strength. A weld bead that is too slow a speed will result in a heavy weld that has too much convexity. Increasing the speed beyond this optimum will result in decreasing penetration. [16] In the arc welding process, increase in welding speed causes: Decrease in the heat input per unit length of the weld. Decrease in the electrode burn off rate. Decrease in the weld reinforcement. If the welding speed decreases beyond a certain point, the penetration also will decrease due to the pressure of the large amount of weld pool beneath the electrode, which will cushion the arc penetrating force. [16]

Comparing the Presantation of Conflict in the Charge

Compare the presentation of conflict in ‘The Charge of the Light Brigade’ by Alfred Tennyson and ‘Anthem for Doomed Youth’ by Wilfred Owen. Alfred Lord Tennyson and Wilfred Owen are both poets who write about the conflict of war and its victims. ‘The Charge of the light brigade’ written by Lord Alfred Tennyson, it is based on a disastrous and real event that unfolded in the frimean war. The poem was written as a memorial for the numerous soldiers that died in the war. However the ‘Anthem for doomed youth’ is a sonnet written by Wilfred Owen.He writes about his feelings for the young men that he fought with on the front line in the Somme. Firstly, in both poems we are presented with imagery revealing the reality of the wartime battlefield this is called aural imagery. In ‘The Charge of the Light Brigade’ the words â€Å"into the valley of death† are used, this is a metaphor suggesting that the Light Brigade charge d themselves to their death, this shows the fierceness of battle and how people many people will died.The words â€Å"charge for the guns† proposes of the certain death that the soldiers will meet and how suicidal this charge is, it also suggests the madness of the war. Tennyson says â€Å"cannon to right of them, cannon to the left of them, cannon in front of them† this shows the confusion through the soldiers and the fierce fighting that is happening in this war. Whereas, in Owens poem ‘Anthem for Doomed Youth’ the more graphic and hurried side of war is shown.Owen uses the words â€Å"for these who die as cattle† suggests the soldiers are abandoned in their own death and there is no way out, it could also suggest that they are sent to be slaughtered just like ‘cattle’ this proposes the tragedy and casualties of war. The words â€Å"monstrous anger of the guns† implies that the soldiers are scared of the guns and by likening th e guns to monsters; this is showing the soldiers are young as it is typically children who are scared of monsters.Owen also uses the words â€Å"hasty orisons† this shows how the dead are not cared for and given an inappropriate burial, and it also shows the speed and rushed tone of war. It could also suggest the people who are praying are not only praying for the dead but also praying for their own lives. Tennyson presents the realism of war as a desperate place where heroes are born, he does not show the reality of war, which might be due to the fact he has not experienced it himself. In contrast Owen presents the reality of war well as he shows the gruesomeness and bitter sadness of war using aural imagery.In Stanza two of ‘charge of the light brigade’ Tennyson writes ‘O the wild charge they made! ’ this shows the recklessness of the charge as Tennyson states the word ‘wild’ and also the pointlessness of the charge, Tennyson uses the word ‘made’ this shows it was in the past and we remember the past like we remember the dead soldiers. Owen uses the phrase ‘No mockeries now for them, no prayers nor bells’ this illustrates how critical Owen is of religious ritual. The phrase ‘passing bells’ could also suggest that the soldiers never got a proper burial.In Tennyson’s poem he exclaims ‘honour the charge they made, Honour the light brigade’ this indicates that Tennyson is ordering us to remember them for what they did for their country as they are already dead but on the other hand, in Owens sonnet he says ‘And each slow dusk a drawing down of the blinds’ this points out that every night as the sun goes down the soldiers family waiting patiently for them to come back, ‘slow dusk going down’ could represent their patience and hope lowering. Thirdly, in both poems there is use of aural imagery or onomatopoeia.We see this in Owenâ€℠¢s sonnet as he writes ‘rifles rapid rattles’ this is also a metaphor; he says this to create an atmosphere and give us a feel of what it’s like on the battlefield, later in the sonnet he also states ‘the shrill, demented choirs of wailing shells’ this makes the atmosphere horrifying as we assume that screams are caused by pain or fear but in this case they have already got pain before the bullet has even got to them, this is because they have been traumatised by the intensity of battle.In Tennyson’s poem he uses the phrase ‘Volley’d and thunder’d’ this is used to show how the bullets where sent back and forth with some cannons in between representing the thunder I could also represent the one smaller army being bullets and the more powerful army being the loud prevailing army, ‘thunder’d is a use of apocalyptic imagery which is a way to describe the disaster of war as we associate thunder with danger an d authority.As well as the above Tennyson also uses the phrase ‘storm’d at with shot and shell’ this shows the confusion of war and the low visibility it relates back to the above quote as thunder comes in storms which could mean that the cannon shots come in packs, the word â€Å"shot† and â€Å"shell† are a violent, noisy, destructive force that that could be thought about in a storm. In both poems both poets use rhetorical questions in their poems, Tennyson says ‘Was there a man dismayed? this gives us an insight into the heads of these soldiers, trying to imagine how it must feel to charge into death head on. Tennyson asks if any of the soldiers were ‘dismayed’ which means to lose your courage or to be overcome by terror. The soldiers were going through hell on the battlefield and it would be a pretty normal reaction for the circumstances that they were in. On the other hand in Owens sonnet his asks about remembrance as he sta tes ‘What candles may be held to speed them all? this could mean a more general question like ‘what rituals can people possible perform to help these soldiers pass on peacefully? ’ these could be Rituals like lighting candles in church. This means we could than say that ‘these candles’ is a metaphor for the larger ceremonies we hold when to honouring those killed in action. As well as Owens question about remembrance and honouring Tennyson last question is also, as he proposes the question ‘When can their glory fade? he is trying to say ‘when wont they be known as legends’ as they have fought for their country when they were outnumbered one to a hundred but they did not oblige, they risked certain death for all for one cause. In conclusion, both poets have written their poems to convey the tragedy of war and to emphasise the importance of remembrance. I feel also wrote their poems to honour those who risked their lives and most had their lives taken for their country and queen. This makes the audience reflect on war as the poets have created a mental picture of the horrific scenes of war.

Peace and Conflict Essay

While the term conflict generally is associated with negative encounters, conflict itself is neither inherently good nor inherently bad. In fact, engaging in conflict can have positive effects on relationships and organizations. Conflict among people, institutions, organizations, nations and in all relationships are a normal, natural and inevitable part of life. In itself, it is to a great extent a necessary tool that enhances development and can be regarded as normal and a prerequisite under certain conditions. In view if this, this paper will labor to clearly examine the conditions in which peace is said to be a normal phenomenon. The term conflict will exhaustively be defined from different school of thoughts and its kinds or types outlined, followed by cited conditions that advocate for the presence of conflict as being normal. Thereafter, a comprehensive conclusion will be drawn from the entire discussion. Conflict can be defined in many ways and can be considered as an expression of hostility, negative attitudes, antagonism, aggression rivalry and misunderstanding. It is associated with situation that involve contradictory or irreconcilable interests between two opposing groups. The term conflict is derived from a Latin word that means to clash or engage in a fight. It is a confrontation between one or more parties aspiring towards incompatible means or ends, Miller (2005). ‘’Conflict is a multi-dimensional social phenomenon which is an integral feature of human existence, essential to the ongoing processes of history, to social change, and transformation,’’ International Alert et al. 1996, 3). Swanstrom and Weissmann (2005) define conflict as being the result of opposing interests involving scarce resources, goal divergence and frustration. This is outside the traditional military sphere and is based on behavioral dimensions. The process begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party holds in great esteem or importance. In the same sense three forms of conflict have been identified. This implies that it has levels to influence namely; Interstate, which is the disputes between nation-states or the violation of the state systems of alliance; Internal conflict, is type of dispute that happens within a given society or part of the given society such as territorial disputes, and civil and ethnic wars; and State-formation, this is the battles over control of government. These are internationally recognized as challenges, which to some extent have been classified as a normal phenomenon as people are heterogeneous in their interests and desires, Wallensteen (2002). Differences in interpretation of the conflict result from different orientations in an effort to resolve and overcome conflicts. One thing that different approaches agree on is that conflicts are essentially clashes among people. These clashes arise from differences of values and interests of opposing parties, those parties being individuals, groups or entire organizations, (Adler, 2002). Conflict also has a positive dimension as normal forms of social interaction which may contribute to the maintenance, development, change and overall stability of social entities. Many social scientists hold that periods of change, be it economic growth or decline, political transitions, or social innovation are associated with conflict. A Dutch scholar by the name of Bonger, believed that theirs is a causal link between conflict and economic and social conditions. Existing institutions come under pressure and may be unable to control or integrate new forces, demands, and collective actors. Change is likely to be uneven and to create a sense of relative deprivation, injustice, and threat among the losers. A recent example is the pressure mounted on the government of Chad in ensuring there is proper accounting procedures in the management of the country’s oil revenue. The activities of these organizations have been both positive and negative. From the positive side, they have been able to curb some of the excesses of governments in many developing countries, (African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes [ACCORD], 2008). Traditional human rights theories seldom took conflict theories to exam the conflicts between different rights and social movements. Under conditions that human rights are violated or a particular class in society feels their rights are not fully being exercised, conflict can be seen as a normal phenomenon. In 1997, the Taiwan feminism movement was separated by the sex worker’s issue. The major feminism groups denied sex could be seen as a right to work, but more tended to see it as a product by exploitation. To those support sex workers, they addressed sex workers have their rights to use sex or body as a work, and even further claimed that sex work is a radical sexual movement, (Ho, 2005). In such a situation, conflict is normal and beneficial as it acts as a podium of debate and its advantages of fostering an awareness of problems that exist and leading to better solutions is clearly seen. Above all the norms of society are readjusted. The more diversified and heterogeneous a society becomes, the greater the probability of more frequent conflict as subgroups who live by their own rules break the rules of other groups (Best, 2004). Conflict is a natural part of relationships. While relationships are sometimes calm and predictable, at other times events and circumstances generate tensions and instability. This phrase suggests that life gives us conflict, and that conflict is a natural part of human experience and relationships. Rather than viewing conflict as a threat, the transformative view sees conflict as a valuable opportunity to grow and increases our understanding of others and ourselves. Conflict helps us stop, assess and take notice. South Africa for example has a multiracial and multiethnic population. â€Å"Blacks constitute 77% of which the Zulu make up 22. % of the overall population,† (ACCORD, 2008, 15). The liberation struggle during the years of white minority rule cemented the Blacks, Asians and coloured people together. The unity forged by the blacks, Asians and colored people under white oppression collapsed when state power was to be competed for by all groups. The conflict of power here is seen as a means of uniting these different groups for the purpose of achieving a common goal, (ibid, 2008). Furthermore, conflicts with some groups bring about fraternity. It maintains and revises the balance of power among antagonists. When conflict breaks out, the former accommodation between the parties involved is rejected, the relative war of each group is tested and a new equilibrium can be established. Such arrangements in the balance of power thwart any one group from being dominant over other groups. As long as their power is continually challenged, members of the ruling group will be blocked from exclusive control of the social system. In most African states where the fight for independence was intense, most ethnic groups worked together to secure independence. Conflict continually creates new norms and modifies old ones. It bringing about situations to which the usual rules do not apply, conflict stimulates the establishment of appropriate guides to action. Moreover, the threat of attack, preparation for war or any hostile challenge from outside can strengthen a group’s solidarity and cohesiveness (Galtung, 1990). Conflict within and between social groups disturbs habits of thought and behavior and creates an atmosphere for innovation and creativity. This is another positive attribute of conflict that can be regarded as normal is that it facilitates the ovement or flow of one generation to the next. This is achieved in that society evolves over a period of time as values and norms of people continue to class and oppose each other within society. The changes may be positive hence benefiting humanity at large though in most cases these benefits are unanticipated and long-term. Finally, Weber contended that it will always exist, regardless of the social, economic, or political nature of society, and that it was functional because of its role in bringing disputes into the open for public debate. Even though individuals and groups enjoying great wealth, prestige, and power have the resources necessary to impose their values on others with fewer resources, Weber viewed the various class divisions in society as normal, inevitable, and acceptable (Curran & Renzetti, 2001). However, it must be noted that if conflict is not managed, it pauses a great danger to humanity. If conflict is to be accepted as a normal phenomenon, it has to be managed or resolved quicker and more efficiently than letting it fester. For Mial and Wood House (2001), by conflict resolution, it is expected that the deep rooted sources of conflict are addressed and resolved, and behavior is no longer violent, nor are attitude hostile any longer, while structure of the conflict has been changed. Desmond Tutu, the Anglican Archbishop emeritus of South Africa, is reported to have commented from within the situation of social revolution in South Africa that â€Å"without reconciliation, there is no future† (Wustenberg, 1998, 5). It is therefore now right to conclude that peace is a normal phenomenon but not when it is poorly managed or resolved. Issues such as the rearrangement of the balance of power, readjustment of group norms and the maintenance of group unity have been examined as the product of conflict even though conflict can be destructive in nature. Contemporary understanding of conflict represents a belief that conflict is not only a positive force of one group, but it is also absolutely essential for achievement of the efficiency of the group.

The Politics Of State And Communities - 886 Words

In my readings from Dye’s â€Å"Politics in State and communities†, described in depth about local and state government laws and policies. It touched base on how they operate separately as well as together. It also described the constitution and what connection it has with the state from a federal standpoint. The constitution limits and influences politics at the state level. (DYE, pg. 28) Politics of the state also determine if a state is primarily liberal, conservative or of the commonwealth. Federal, Confederal and Unitary are three different systems of government. These systems have their own laws that describe their constitutional agreement. State and local government are categorized separately from the systems of government previously†¦show more content†¦The state of Maryland can be defined as a liberal state. Maryland’s welfare benefit program is always being expanded to meet several different needs and specifications. Also, due to the riots that occurred this past April taxes will increase over the next few years. I believe that there should be a major change in benefits such as granting benefits to college students. Welfare programs today are made to meet the needs of individuals with children and immigrants. Immigration has been a rising debate within the United States over the past few years. â€Å"To date, the intense conflict over immigration policy in Washington has prevented any effective action to halt immigration†. (Dye pg. 14) President Obama created a program that would cause controversy throughout the country. (Baltimore Sun; Tanfani, Joseph; 2015 February) This program was to prevent illegal immigrants from being punished and deported. There are millions of illegal immigrants within in the United States. Federalism plays a major role in the policies of immigration. â€Å"The decision of the federal government affects states and communities†. (Dye pg. 13) If federal immigration laws are not enforc ed, than the state level immigration laws could be enforced. State immigration laws vary from state to state. Immigrants who come to the United States choose the best state with laws that are for them and not against them. The national government decides if an immigrant can